By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
These skills will help you manage data and information confidently, making you a valuable asset in any modern workplace.
Digital literacy is essential for professionals in Applied Biology to manage and utilize data effectively in research, diagnostics, and decision-making processes. The ability to handle digital data and access reliable information sources via the internet enhances productivity and accuracy in biological studies and laboratory work. This chapter explores how data and information are defined and distinguished, the critical role they play in professional settings, and the various internet services and applications relevant to Applied Biology. It also covers practical skills such as web browsing, digital data backup, and emerging internet issues that affect data management and security.
Biology is a data-driven field: every count, measurement, photograph and field note is data, and the internet is where much of it is found, shared and stored. This topic explains the difference between data and information and why both matter, and then describes the services the internet offers, the applications used to reach them and the way to browse, search, download and back up safely. It also looks at issues that are changing how the internet is used in research work.
Data are raw facts, figures, symbols or observations that have not yet been interpreted. Examples are a column of pH readings from a stream, a tally of insects caught in traps or a list of leaf lengths. Alone, data say little. Information is data that have been processed, organised and given context so that they have meaning and can guide a decision. When the pH readings are averaged, compared with a standard and plotted against sampling dates, they become information about whether the stream water is becoming more acidic.
| Point of difference | Data | Information |
|---|---|---|
| Form | Raw numbers, words or images | Processed results such as summaries, tables and charts |
| Context | Has none until it is interpreted | Has meaning for a purpose |
| Use | Needs analysis before it can be used | Can be used directly in decisions and reports |
| Reliability | May contain errors that must be checked | Has been checked and presented |
In biology work, data collection is only the first step: field sheets and instrument readings must be turned into information before a conclusion can be drawn. Information that is later combined with experience and other findings becomes knowledge.
Good decisions in biology rest on reliable data and clear information. The importance of data and information can be seen in these areas.
Uses in a laboratory or field setting include the following.
The internet is the worldwide network of connected computers, and it carries many services, each designed for a kind of task. A technician uses several of them in one day: sending a message to a collaborator, searching a database, uploading a data file and ordering supplies. The services below are the main ones.
Communication services let people exchange messages and talk across distances. They include electronic mail, instant messaging, voice and video calls over the internet, and video conferencing. Email suits formal messages with attachments, such as a field report, while instant messaging suits quick questions between members of a team in the field. Video conferencing allows a supervisor and a research team in different places to hold a meeting and share a screen with results.
Information retrieval services help users to find information stored online. Search engines search the web for pages that match keywords. Online databases hold organised records that can be searched, such as scientific literature databases like PubMed, species occurrence records like the Global Biodiversity Information Facility and sequence records like GenBank. Digital libraries give access to journals, theses and books. A technician preparing to identify a pest, for instance, can search a database for descriptions and photographs of the insect and then confirm the identification with a reference.
File transfer is the movement of files between computers over the internet. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) copies files to and from a remote server, and its secure forms, SFTP and FTPS, encrypt the transfer, whereas plain FTP sends data and passwords without encryption. Large files such as microscope image stacks or sequencing results may also be sent by download links from cloud storage or by a web upload form. Check the file size, and compress a large folder first, since a connection that drops during a long upload can force the transfer to start again.
The World Wide Web, or the web, is a system of linked documents and resources that are stored on web servers and viewed with a browser. It is one service on the internet, and it is not the same as the internet itself, which also carries email, file transfer and other services. Web pages are written in HTML and delivered by the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTTP, or its secure form HTTPS. Services delivered through the web include websites, online journals, web portals, video sites and online forms. The next item, Web Services, is a different idea. A research group may keep a website that lists its projects, publications and downloadable protocols.
A web service is a way for one program to ask another program for data over the network, without a person opening a web page. The requesting program sends a request to an address, and the other program returns the data in a standard format such as JSON or XML. Example: a weather station dashboard at a field site may call a weather data service to get the day's rainfall forecast, and a species list tool may call a biodiversity database to check whether a name is accepted. Web services let separate systems work together automatically, which saves retyping.
Every device on a network needs an address to send and receive data. Automatic network address configuration gives each device its settings without a person typing them. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) does this: when a laptop joins the network, a DHCP server, which is usually built into the router, leases it an IP address and also supplies the subnet mask, the default gateway and the addresses of the name servers. The lease lasts for a set time and is renewed. Static addressing, where the address is typed in by hand, is used for devices that must always keep the same address, such as a network printer or a data server.
A newsgroup is an online discussion group on one subject, to which members post messages that others read and answer. The Usenet system arranges newsgroups in hierarchies by topic, and users read them with a newsreader program or through a web service. Newsgroups have largely given way to web forums, mailing lists and social media groups, but the idea of a topic-based discussion space is the same, and scientists still use such groups to ask for help with a technique or an identification. Messages are public, so unpublished data and personal details are not posted.
E-commerce is buying and selling goods and services over the internet. A laboratory may order consumables, books or software from online suppliers, and a researcher may sell a service or pay for a conference registration online. Payment is made by card, mobile money or an online payment service. Before paying, confirm that the seller is genuine, that the page address starts with https, and that delivery, return and receipt arrangements are clear. Suppliers of regulated materials, such as some chemicals and biological materials, may require proof of authority, so the order must follow the institution's procedure.
An internet access application is a program that connects a user to an internet service. Each type is built for one kind of service.
Browsing is how most people use the web, and doing it well saves time and reduces risk. The ideas that follow, from the basic terms to bookmarks, apply to every browser.
A web page is a single document shown in a browser, and a website is a set of related pages. The home page is the first page of a site, and a hyperlink is text or an image that opens another page when it is clicked. A domain name, such as example.org, names the server where the site is stored. A search engine finds pages by keyword, and a browser tab keeps several pages open in one window. HTTP and HTTPS are the protocols that carry pages, and the S in HTTPS means that the connection is encrypted.
Safe browsing protects data and the computer. Check that the address begins with https and that the domain name is spelled correctly before entering any password. Do not click links in unexpected messages, and download files only from sources you trust. Keep the browser and the operating system updated, because updates fix known weaknesses. On a shared laboratory computer, do not let the browser save passwords, and sign out when finished. Avoid entering sensitive data when connected to an open public wireless network. Threats and controls are treated fully under Apply cybersecurity skills.
Web browsing is the act of moving from page to page to find or use information. Open the browser and type a web address into the address bar, or type keywords into the search box, and press Enter. Follow hyperlinks to move to other pages, and use the Back and Forward buttons to return to pages already seen. Refresh reloads a page that has not loaded fully or that has changed, and Home returns to the start page. Browsing for a purpose, with the question written down, prevents the time lost in following unrelated links.
A browser window has an address bar, which shows the page address and also accepts search words, a row of tabs, navigation buttons for back, forward and refresh, and a menu that opens the settings. To work in it, follow this order.
The browser menu opens its settings and tools. Common settings include the home page and start-up pages, the default search engine, the folder where downloads are saved, the language and the page zoom. Privacy settings control cookies, pop-ups and permissions for location, camera, microphone and notifications for each website, which should be granted only when the site needs them. A password manager built into the browser can store passwords. Extensions add features, but install only those from the official store, because a poor extension can read the pages being visited.
The cache is a store of copies of page parts, such as images and scripts, which lets a visited page load faster. Cookies are small files that websites place in the browser to remember a visitor, such as a sign-in or a language choice. Clearing them removes the stored copies and the saved site data. It is done to fix a page that displays old content or incorrectly, to free storage and to protect privacy on a shared computer. After clearing, sites ask for the user to sign in again, and the first load of each page is slower. The command is found in the privacy or history settings of the browser, where the period and the kinds of data to clear are chosen.
A Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is a string of characters that identifies a resource on the internet. A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the kind of URI that also says where the resource is and how to reach it, and it is what is typed in the address bar. A URL has parts, which can be read from left to right in this example.
| Part | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Scheme | https:// | The protocol used to reach the resource |
| Host or domain | www.example.org | The server that holds the resource |
| Path | /herbarium/specimens | The folder or page on the server |
| Query | ?family=Fabaceae | Extra information sent to the page, here a search term |
| Fragment | #list | A position inside the page |
Other URIs identify things without giving a location, such as a digital object identifier (DOI), which gives a journal article a permanent name that stays valid even if its web address changes. Cite a DOI, when there is one, in reports instead of a long page address.
A bookmark, also called a favourite, saves the address of a page so that it can be reopened with one click. Add a bookmark with the star icon in the address bar or with Ctrl+D, give it a clear name and place it in a folder. Folders for each project, such as Identification keys, Journals and Suppliers, keep bookmarks tidy. Signing in to the browser account syncs bookmarks to other devices. Review the list from time to time and delete links that no longer work.
Web outputs are the results a user obtains from the web: pages, documents, data, images and files. A technician must find them, judge whether they can be trusted, use them legally and store them in an orderly way.
Web-based information comes in many forms: articles and reports, reference pages, images, videos, data tables for download, maps and live dashboards. Online journals and databases publish research results, and organisation websites publish protocols, guidelines and manuals as PDF files. Some pages are updated constantly, such as a dashboard of weather or river level records, and others stay fixed. Note the date and the source of everything taken from the web, because both are needed for a reference.
A search engine looks for pages that contain the words typed in, and the quality of the results depends on the words chosen. Use specific keywords, for example "Anopheles larval habitats" and not "mosquitoes". Put a phrase in quotation marks to search for the exact words, use a minus sign to leave out a word, and add file type or site limits to narrow the search. Scientific names find the right species more reliably than common names. Search results that are summaries produced by artificial intelligence must be checked against the sources they cite before use. Scholarly search services return journal papers and are better than a general search for research references.
Anyone can publish online, so information must be evaluated before it is used. Ask the following questions of every source.
A page ending in .org or .ac.ke is not proof of quality, so check the content as well as the address. If a claim cannot be traced to a primary source, treat it as unconfirmed.
Copyright protects original works, such as articles, photographs and software, and in Kenya the Copyright Act, 2001 gives the author the protection without any registration. Using a work beyond what the law allows without permission is infringement. Quote only short extracts, always acknowledge the source, and use material that carries an open licence, such as a Creative Commons licence, according to its terms. Data protection applies when the data identify a person, such as photographs of people, contact lists and survey records. Such data must not be uploaded, shared or published without the consent of the person. The laws themselves are described under Laws Governing Protection of ICT in Kenya.
Downloads should be managed so that files are safe, easy to find and do not fill the drive. Check the source and the file type before downloading, and be careful of programs and files that arrive unexpectedly. Save files to a chosen folder, and give them clear names, since the browser may use a long default name. Scan downloaded files with antivirus software before opening them, and delete installers and duplicates once they are no longer needed. Large downloads use mobile data bundles quickly, so use a Wi-Fi connection when it is available and schedule big files for when the network is less busy. Most browsers show a list of downloads in the menu, where a failed download can be resumed.
A backup is a copy of data kept separately from the original, so that the data can be restored after loss caused by a failed drive, an accidental deletion, theft or malicious software. A guideline for sound backup is to keep three copies of important data, on two different kinds of storage, with one copy kept away from the original site. Backup is done in an orderly way, following these steps.
Online backup copies data over the internet to storage on a remote server, often called cloud storage. Services such as Google Drive, OneDrive and Dropbox, and dedicated backup services, offer this. The advantages are that the copy is away from the laboratory, it can be reached from anywhere and it can run automatically. The limits are that the first copy of a large data set takes a long time on a slow connection, that it uses data bundles, that a monthly fee may apply beyond the free space and that the data are stored on another organisation's servers, so sensitive data should be encrypted. A synchronised folder is not by itself a backup, because a file deleted on the computer is deleted in the cloud too unless the service keeps older versions.
Offline backup copies data to a device that is not connected to the internet, such as an external hard drive or solid state drive, a flash drive or optical discs. It works without a network and the copy cannot be changed by an attack that comes over the network when the device is disconnected. Disconnect and store the device in a safe place, away from the computer, after each backup. Its limits are that the device can be lost, stolen, damaged by heat, damp or a fall, or forgotten, and that someone has to remember to carry out the copy. Label each device with the contents and the date, and replace old devices before they fail.
The way people use the internet keeps changing, and new issues arise that affect research and laboratory work. A biology worker needs to be aware of them.
This chapter explored the fundamental concepts of data and information, clarifying their meanings and highlighting their significance in various practical contexts. It examined the diverse types of internet services, including communication, information retrieval, file transfer, and e-commerce, alongside specialized services such as automatic network address configuration and newsgroups. The discussion extended to different internet access applications and introduced essential web browsing concepts focusing on security, safety, and the effective use of browser tools and settings. The chapter emphasized the importance of managing web outputs through critical evaluation of information, understanding copyright and data protection, and overseeing downloads efficiently. It also covered methods for performing digital data backup, distinguishing between online and offline backup approaches. Finally, the chapter addressed emerging issues related to internet use, underscoring the dynamic nature of digital environments and the need for continuous adaptation.
Question 1 key points:
Question 2 key points:
The Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) is implementing a project to digitize and share plant disease data collected from various counties using internet-based platforms.
Tasks:
a) Identify three internet services KALRO can use to facilitate communication and data sharing among researchers. (6 marks)
b) Outline the steps the organization should follow to ensure secure web browsing and data protection when accessing online plant disease databases. (8 marks)
c) Recommend a backup strategy combining online and offline methods suitable for safeguarding the digitized plant disease data. (6 marks)
a) KALRO can use email services for formal communication, cloud-based file transfer for sharing large datasets, and video conferencing platforms for virtual meetings among county researchers.
b) Steps include: using strong, unique passwords and multi-factor authentication; ensuring websites accessed use HTTPS; regularly updating antivirus software; clearing cache and cookies after sessions; avoiding public Wi-Fi or using VPNs; and educating staff on phishing risks.
c) A hybrid backup strategy is recommended: maintain daily automatic online backups to cloud storage for immediate recovery and weekly offline backups on external hard drives stored securely to protect against internet outages or cyber-attacks.
Question 11 (Compulsory - 20 marks)
At the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), researchers collect large volumes of data on crop diseases.
a) Discuss the types of internet services that would enhance communication and data sharing among KALRO scientists. (10 marks)
b) Explain how web browsing concepts and security measures should be implemented to protect sensitive research information accessed online by KALRO staff. (10 marks)
Question 12 (20 marks)
Describe the process and significance of performing digital data backup in a veterinary laboratory at a county government level. Include advantages and challenges of both online and offline backup methods.
Question 13 (20 marks)
Explain the importance of critically evaluating web-based information in applied biology research. Outline five criteria that a biologist should use to assess the reliability of online sources.
Question 14 (20 marks)
Discuss the emerging issues related to internet use that could impact data management and information security in Kenyan public health institutions. Provide practical recommendations to address these challenges.
Question 11
a) Internet services such as email, video conferencing, cloud storage, and research databases facilitate real-time communication and collaborative data sharing among KALRO scientists, improving research efficiency and dissemination.
b) Implementing web browsing concepts includes educating staff on using secure browsers, enabling firewalls and antivirus software, regularly clearing cache and cookies, and using strong authentication methods to prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data.
Question 12
Digital data backup ensures protection against data loss due to hardware failure or cyber threats. Online backup provides immediate offsite storage accessible from anywhere but depends on internet stability; offline backup offers physical security but risks physical damage or loss. Both methods combined provide comprehensive data protection for veterinary labs.
Question 13
Critical evaluation prevents misinformation in research. Criteria include author credibility, publication date, source reputation, evidence supporting claims, and objectivity of the information. These help biologists ensure data validity and research integrity.
Question 14
Emerging internet issues include cyberattacks, data privacy breaches, misinformation, and digital divide challenges. Institutions should adopt robust cybersecurity policies, conduct regular staff training, implement data encryption, and invest in infrastructure to ensure secure and equitable internet access.
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