Chapter 1: Prepare planting materials

Preparing planting materials is a critical first step in annual crop production that directly affects crop establishment, yield, and quality. For Agriculture and Extension professionals in Kenya, mastering this process ensures that farmers optimize resource use and achieve sustainable production. This chapter addresses the foundational concepts and practical preparations necessary before planting, focusing on terminology and the tools and equipment essential for land preparation.

1.1 Prepare planting materials

Preparing planting materials means choosing, treating and organising seeds or vegetative parts so that they establish quickly and grow into an even crop. It also means getting the land ready for them, because even the best seed performs poorly in a cloddy, weedy or compacted seedbed. A smallholder who plans to plant maize and beans on a plot cleared from grass therefore has two jobs before planting day: sort and treat the planting materials, and assemble the right tools and equipment to clear, dig, level and ridge the plot.

1.1.1 Definition of terms

Technical terms give extension workers, farmers and input suppliers a common language. The terms below are used throughout this unit.

Seed

A seed is the mature fertilised ovule of a plant, containing an embryo and stored food, that can germinate and grow into a new plant. It is the main planting material for annual crops such as maize, beans, sorghum and sunflower.

Seedling

A seedling is a young plant that has recently emerged from a seed and is in its early growth stage. Crops such as tomatoes, cabbages and onions are usually raised as seedlings in a nursery bed and later transplanted to the field.

Vegetative propagule

A vegetative propagule is a plant part, such as a tuber, cutting, vine or sucker, used to reproduce a plant without seed. Sweet potato vines and cassava stem cuttings are common examples in Kenya.

Germination

Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a seedling under favourable conditions. It needs moisture, a suitable temperature and oxygen, and the seed must be viable, which means alive and able to grow.

Seed treatment

Seed treatment is the application of a chemical or biological agent to seed before planting to protect it and the young seedling from soil-borne pests and diseases. Dressing maize seed with a registered fungicide, for example, helps protect seedlings from seed rots and seedling blights, and an insecticide dressing protects germinating seed from soil insects such as termites. Treatment therefore improves germination and gives an even plant stand. Treated seed is poisonous: wear gloves when handling it, never use it for food or feed, and keep it away from children and animals.

Land preparation

Land preparation is the group of operations that turn cleared land into a seedbed: digging or ploughing, breaking clods, levelling and forming ridges or beds.

Implement

An implement is a tool or machine that does the work on the soil, such as a hoe, a plough or a harrow. A hand tool is worked by the operator's own muscle power; an implement may also be drawn by animals or by a tractor.

1.1.2 Assemble land preparation tools and equipment

Assembling means gathering the tools and equipment needed for the planned operations, checking that each is complete, safe and sharp, and fitting any parts that come separately, such as handles, blades or hitch pins. Working through a checklist before leaving the store saves time in the field and prevents accidents caused by loose heads, worn blades or flat tyres. The choice of tools also affects crop establishment: a plough or rotavator leaves a seedbed that is deeper and finer than hand digging can achieve over a large area, and a blunt hoe or the wrong tool for a heavy soil leaves clods that reduce seed contact with moist soil and make germination uneven.

1.1.2.1 Axes

An axe has a forged steel head with a sharpened cutting edge and a wooden handle that passes through an eye in the head and is held tight by a wedge. To assemble it, fit the head onto the handle, drive the wedge in and trim the protruding wood. Before use, check that the head cannot move on the handle, the edge is sharp and free from chips, and the handle is straight without cracks. A smallholder clearing a plot of scrub uses the axe for stems too thick for a panga.

1.1.2.2 Panga

A panga is a broad steel blade with one cutting edge, fixed to a short wooden or plastic handle by rivets or bolts. It is a widely used bush-clearing hand tool on Kenyan farms. Before use, check that the rivets are tight, the handle has no splits and the edge is sharp and free from deep nicks. Keep a sheath or cover on it when carrying it to the field so that nobody is cut on the way.

1.1.2.3 Rake

A rake is a steel head carrying a row of short tines, fixed to a long wooden handle. The farm rake used for seedbeds has strong, evenly spaced tines. Before use, check that no tine is bent or broken and that the head is firm on the handle. A rake is picked up at the end of land preparation, when the plot has been dug and the farmer needs to remove stones, roots and stubble and smooth the surface.

1.1.2.4 Slasher

A slasher is a long-handled cutting tool with a light blade, either straight or slightly curved, swung from side to side close to the ground to cut grass and soft weeds. It is lighter than a panga and cuts a wider swath with each swing. Check that the blade is sharp, firmly fixed and not bent, and that the handle is long enough for the operator to stand upright.

1.1.2.5 Tillage tools/equipment/machinery

Tillage tools are the tools and machines that cut, loosen, turn or crumble the soil. They are grouped by the source of power that drives them. Hand tools are driven by the operator and include the hoe and the fork jembe. Animal-drawn implements are pulled by oxen or donkeys and include a single-furrow plough, a ridger and a tined harrow. Tractor-drawn and tractor-mounted machinery includes multi-furrow ploughs, disc harrows and rotavators. The choice depends on farm size, soil type, the money and labour available, and the stage of land preparation. Each implement of the three groups is described in the sections that follow.

1.1.2.6 Fork jembe

A fork jembe is a heavy hand tool with a head of strong flat tines, usually three or four, fixed to a wooden handle at the angle of a hoe. It is swung down into the soil, pulled back to lift and turn it, and used to break clods. It works well in heavy, sticky clay where a flat-bladed hoe sticks. Check that the tines are straight and of equal length, and that the head is secure on the handle.

1.1.2.7 Harrows

A harrow is a frame carrying tines, spikes, springs or discs that is dragged over ploughed land to break clods and level the surface. This section covers the tined types: the spike-tooth harrow with rigid tines, the spring-tooth harrow whose tines flex and vibrate to shake out roots, and the drag harrow made of a simple frame with tines or chains. Small versions are drawn by oxen and larger versions by a tractor. Before use, check that the tines are tight and not bent, the frame is not cracked, and the hitch point and chains are sound. The disc type is described under Disc harrow.

1.1.2.8 Hoe

The hoe, known in Kenya as the jembe, is a widely used hand tool on small farms. It has a flat or slightly curved steel blade fixed to a wooden handle. Assemble it by fitting the handle into the socket or tang of the blade and fixing it with a rivet or wedge. Check that the blade is firm and the edge is sharp, and that the handle length suits the operator, so that digging does not cause back strain.

Mattock

A mattock is a heavy hand tool with a pointed head on one side and a flat adze blade on the other. It is chosen where the soil is compacted or stony or where roots must be cut, and is used to break hard ground and dig planting holes. Check that the head cannot slip along the handle.

1.1.2.9 Tractor

A tractor is the power unit of mechanised land preparation. It pulls trailed implements from its drawbar, lifts and carries mounted implements on its three-point hitch, and drives rotary machines through the power take-off shaft. Before the tractor leaves the shed, check these items:

• Fuel and oils: Fill the fuel tank and check the engine oil, coolant and hydraulic oil levels.
• Tyres: Check that the pressure is correct and equal on each side and that the wheel nuts are tight.
• Brakes and controls: Test the brakes, clutch and steering and confirm that all lights work.
• Guards and safety frame: Confirm that the power take-off guard is in place and that the roll-over protective structure and seat belt are fitted.
• Battery and leaks: Check that the battery is charged and that there are no oil or fuel leaks under the machine.

Never carry passengers on the tractor or implement, and always lower mounted implements to the ground when the tractor is parked.

1.1.2.10 Equipment

The equipment in this group is everything that supports an implement in the field, as distinct from the cutting parts themselves. It includes hitch pins, top and lower links, drawbars and chains used to connect implements to a tractor or to animals, power take-off shafts and their shields, the spanners and grease gun that adjust and lubricate the machine, spare shear bolts, and the wheelbarrow or trailer that moves materials. Assemble this kit with the implement and check it before leaving the store. A hitch that is not pinned or a missing shear bolt can stop work in the middle of a field or injure the operator.

1.1.2.11 Mower

A mower cuts grass, weeds and cover crops close to the ground. Rotary mowers have blades that spin horizontally; cutter-bar mowers have a reciprocating blade that works like a pair of scissors; and flail mowers have swinging blades that chop and shred. Small mowers are pushed by hand and driven by an engine, while larger ones are mounted on or pulled by a tractor. Before use, check the blades for sharpness and tightness, ensure the guards and deflector flaps are in place, and check engine oil and fuel. Remove stones and wire from the area first.

1.1.2.12 Rotavator

A rotavator, also called a rotary tiller, has a horizontal shaft fitted with curved blades enclosed in a hood. It is driven by the tractor power take-off, or by its own engine in the walk-behind version known as a power tiller. As the blades turn they cut and throw the soil, breaking it into a fine tilth in one pass. Before use, check that all blades are tight and the right way round, that the gearbox and chain case are filled with the correct oil, and that the power take-off shaft and its guard are secure. Running it too long or too fast can pulverise the soil into a dust that crusts after rain.

1.1.2.13 Wheelbarrow

A wheelbarrow has one wheel at the front, a tray of steel or plastic and two handles with legs at the rear. It is used to move soil, manure, stones, seed and tools around the plot. Check the tyre pressure or, if the wheel is solid, check that it turns freely. Inspect the tray for holes, the frame for cracks, and the axle and bolts for tightness. Grease the axle so that the wheel spins without squeaking.

1.1.2.14 Ridgers

A ridger has two mouldboards, or wings, set on a frame that push soil outwards on both sides as it moves, forming a ridge between two furrows. Oxen or a tractor pull it, and the distance between the wings can be adjusted to give the required ridge width. Before use, check that the wings are tight and set at the same angle, that the frame is straight, and that the hitch and depth adjustments move freely.

1.1.2.15 Mouldboard plough

The mouldboard plough is the standard implement for primary tillage. Its main parts are the share, which cuts the soil horizontally, the mouldboard, which lifts and turns the furrow slice, the landside, which presses against the furrow wall to keep the plough steady, and the frog and beam, which join these parts to the hitch. Ox-drawn types usually have a single bottom, while tractor-mounted ploughs have two or more bottoms. Before use, check that the share is sharp and not worn short, that bolts are tight, and that the mouldboard surface is smooth and free from rust, because soil sticks to rough metal. Set the working width and depth according to the maker's instructions and the soil.

1.1.2.16 Disc plough

A disc plough has large concave steel discs, set at an angle to the line of travel and free to turn on bearings. The discs roll over the soil and cut into it rather than slicing a furrow, which makes this plough suitable for hard, dry, stony or root-filled ground and for sticky soils where a mouldboard clogs. Scrapers clean the discs as they rotate. Before use, check disc sharpness, bearing lubrication, scraper position and bolt tightness, and set the disc angle and tilt for the working depth required.

1.1.2.17 Disc harrow

A disc harrow has gangs of concave steel discs mounted on axles, with two or four gangs on the frame depending on the model. It is drawn by a tractor after ploughing to cut clods, partly bury residues and level the surface. The angle of the gangs controls how aggressively the discs cut: a wider angle gives deeper, more vigorous work. Before use, grease the bearings, check that the discs are tight on the axle and not cracked, confirm that the scrapers touch the discs, and set the gang angle.

Chapter Summary

This chapter covered the essential aspects of preparing planting materials for annual crop production. It began by defining key terms related to planting materials and then detailed the various land preparation tools and equipment, including axes, pangas, rakes, slashers, and mechanized options such as tractors and rotavators. The importance of personal protective equipment like gloves, helmets, gumboots, face masks, and protective goggles was emphasized to ensure safety during preparation activities. The chapter also explained the specific uses of each tool and the necessary maintenance practices to prolong their effectiveness and durability. It then explored the different types of planting materials, such as seeds, seedlings, cuttings, and tubers, highlighting their roles in crop establishment. Finally, the chapter discussed critical crop management practices including mulching, gapping, thinning, training, fertilizer application-pruning, and trellising, all of which contribute to healthy plant growth and optimal yields.