Camel production is an important component of draught animal management in arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya. Camels provide multiple benefits including milk, meat, transport, and draught power, especially in pastoral communities where cattle and other livestock may struggle to survive. Efficient camel production requires appropriate infrastructure to ensure animal welfare, productivity, and ease of management. This chapter focuses on the key structures involved in camel production, tailored to the practical needs of animal production professionals working in Kenyan contexts.

1.1 Camel production structures

Camel production structures form the physical foundation for successful camel husbandry. These structures must accommodate the unique behavior, size, and environmental adaptations of camels while facilitating feeding, watering, shelter, and health management. In Kenya’s drylands, well-designed camel housing and handling facilities enhance productivity by protecting camels from harsh weather, predators, and disease vectors. Proper structures also support routine management tasks such as milking, veterinary care, and breeding.

Crushes

A crush is a strong, narrow handling structure that holds one camel at a time so that it can be examined, treated, vaccinated, sampled or milked safely. Camels are large and can be unpredictable when stressed, so a well-built crush protects both the animal and the handler. Example: on a dairy camel unit, a camel with a swollen hock is guided down a narrow chute into the crush, where the animal health technician can examine and treat the leg without the camel kicking or falling.

Features of an effective crush:

• Narrow approach chute: The chute guides camels in single file and calmly towards the crush. It should be long enough to hold several animals waiting their turn.
• Strong restraint: The frame and gates must hold a restless camel without bending or causing injury. Rails and posts should be firmly anchored in the ground.
• Smooth, safe surfaces: There should be no sharp edges, protruding nails or loose wire that can cut the skin. The floor should be firm and non-slippery.
• Side access: Removable rails or side gates let the handler reach the neck, flanks, udder and legs for injections, hoof checks and treatment.
• Secure gates: Entry and exit gates must close firmly and be operated from outside the crush, so that the handler is never between the camel and the gate.
• Shade and drainage: A roof or shade over the crush reduces heat stress during long treatment sessions, and a sloped floor prevents water and urine from collecting.

Milking parlour

A milking parlour is a clean, shaded area where lactating camels are held for milking. It reduces contamination of milk, stress to the camel and risk to the milker. Example: on a dairy camel cooperative, shaded milking yards with clean, non-slip floors have improved milk hygiene and reduced animal stress during milking sessions, which supports higher milk yield.

Features of a good milking parlour:

• Clean, shaded area: Shade keeps the camel and the milker cool, and the area must be kept free of manure, dust and standing water.
• Non-slip flooring: A firm floor with a slight slope allows urine and wash water to drain away, and prevents slipping.
• Easy access to the udder: The camel should stand so that the milker can reach the udder safely and comfortably, with enough space to work without being kicked.
• Holding area: A fenced waiting yard next to the parlour keeps the next camels calm and ready, and allows calves to be kept nearby when the dam needs them present.
• Washing facilities: Clean water, a bucket or tap, and a place to keep milking containers off the ground support udder cleaning and milk hygiene.
• Safe entry and exit: Gates must be strong and easy to open so that camels move in and out in an orderly manner.

Barn

A barn is a roofed and more enclosed building used for animals that need closer protection and care than the general herd. It is used mainly for calving females, young calves, sick or weak animals and, where needed, breeding males. Example: a pregnant camel is moved to a quiet barn pen a few days before calving, so that she can give birth away from the noise and competition of the main herd.

Main uses and features of a camel barn:

• Calving pens: Separate, quiet pens for pregnant females to give birth reduce stress and improve calf survival.
• Calf pens: Young calves are housed in dry, draught-free pens with clean bedding, where they can be observed and fed properly.
• Isolation pens: Sick animals or new arrivals are kept apart from the herd to prevent the spread of disease.
• Separate male pens: Males are housed apart from females with calves to prevent fighting and ensure calf safety. Pens are partitioned with strong walls or rails.
• Ventilation and light: Openings high on the walls or under the eaves allow air to flow and remove ammonia and heat without causing cold draughts on young animals.
• Easy cleaning: Floors should slope to a drain or channel, and passages should be wide enough to remove manure and bedding easily.

Feeding facility

A feeding facility is the set of troughs, water points and mineral holders from which camels eat and drink. Camels have specific dietary and hydration needs adapted to arid environments, and well-designed facilities deliver feed efficiently and give clean water, which directly affects growth, reproduction and milk production. Example: on a camel unit, lactating females are fed supplements from raised troughs beside the shed, so that the feed stays clean and none is trampled into the soil.

Essential features of feeding and watering structures:

• Feed troughs: Elevated feed troughs prevent contamination by dirt or feces and reduce feed wastage. Troughs must be wide and sturdy to accommodate the camel’s long neck and large head.
• Water points: Camels require access to clean water daily; water troughs should be large and easy to clean. Water points must be protected from contamination by dust and animal waste.
• Salt licks and mineral blocks: Providing mineral supplements in accessible holders supports camel health and productivity.
• Pasture management: Fencing or designated grazing areas help manage forage availability and reduce overgrazing.
• Adequate trough length: Enough space along the trough lets all animals feed at once, so that weaker camels are not pushed away by dominant ones.

Camel shed

A camel shed is a roofed, usually open-sided shelter in which camels rest, particularly at night or during extreme weather. It must provide shelter from extreme heat, cold, dust storms and rain, which are common in arid and semi-arid Kenyan regions. A poorly designed shelter can lead to stress, injury and reduced productivity.

Key considerations for camel shed design:

• Space allowance: Each adult camel requires adequate space to lie down and move freely, typically about 4 to 6 square meters per animal. Crowding increases stress and the risk of injury or disease spread.
• Ventilation: Good airflow reduces heat stress and respiratory problems. Open sides or adjustable vents help maintain a cool environment while protecting camels from dust.
• Flooring: Floors should be firm, dry, and non-slippery to prevent injuries. Earthen or well-drained concrete floors covered with dry bedding such as straw are recommended.
• Shade provision: A roof or shade structure is critical to protect camels from direct sunlight, especially during the hot dry season. Shade reduces heat load and water loss through sweating.
• Waste management: The shed must allow easy removal of manure and urine to maintain hygiene. Accumulated waste attracts flies and parasites that can transmit diseases.

Camels prefer resting in groups but require enough space to avoid aggressive interactions. Example: on a pastoral cooperative farm, the sheds are divided into separate pens for females with calves and for males, which prevents fighting.

Camel dips

A camel dip is a structure used to apply an acaricide (a tick-killing chemical) to the whole body of the camel to control ticks, mange mites and other external parasites. These parasites cause skin damage, blood loss, stress and reduced milk and growth, and some transmit diseases. Example: at the start of the wet season, when ticks increase, a herd is passed through a dip or spray race so that every part of the skin, including the armpits, groin and under the tail, is wetted.

Features and management of a camel dip:

• Entry and exit design: The entry should be a gentle ramp or chute that avoids frightening the camel, and the exit should be a sloping, non-slip platform. Dimensions must suit the greater height and length of camels compared with cattle.
• Holding and draining yards: A holding pen before the dip keeps animals calm, and a draining pen after it lets surplus chemical flow back into the dip instead of onto the ground.
• Alternative of a spray race or hand spraying: Where a full dip is not practical, a spray race or hand-operated sprayer can be used for small herds. All body parts must still be wetted thoroughly.
• Correct chemical use: Use only an acaricide recommended by a veterinarian for camels, mixed at the strength on the label, because some products suited to cattle can harm camels.
• Operator safety: Handlers should wear gloves, boots, an apron and a face covering, and wash thoroughly after work. Chemicals must be kept away from food, feed and water points.
• Safe waste disposal: The dip must be located away from rivers, water points and dwellings, and used wash must be disposed of as advised so as not to pollute the environment.

Feed storage facility

A feed storage facility is a covered, ventilated store where hay, crop residues, concentrates and supplements are kept until they are fed. Good storage keeps feed dry and clean, prevents moulds and loss of nutrients, and keeps rodents and insects out. Example: on a camel unit, bales of hay are stacked on raised wooden platforms inside a roofed store, so that the feed remains dry throughout the rainy season.

Features of a good feed store:

• Roof and walls: The store must keep out rain and direct sun. Any leaks should be repaired quickly, because damp feed grows moulds that can make animals sick.
• Ventilation: Openings with fine mesh allow air to flow and prevent heat and moisture build-up, while keeping out birds and rodents.
• Raised floor: Stacking feed on pallets or platforms stops moisture rising from the ground and makes it easier to clean beneath.
• Pest control: Gaps in walls and floors should be sealed, and the store inspected regularly for rats, termites and weevils.
• Separate sections: Roughage, concentrates and mineral supplements should be stored in separate sections, and chemicals such as acaricides must never be kept in the same space as feed.
• Stock rotation: Older feed is used first and new feed placed behind it, which reduces spoilage and waste.

Loading ramps for transport

Loading ramps allow camels to be moved on and off vehicles safely when they are sold, taken to a market or moved to new grazing areas. A ramp with a gentle slope and side rails prevents slipping and injury and keeps the animals calm. Example: when sold camels are loaded for transport, a ramp with firm side rails and a non-slip surface guides them up into the vehicle one at a time. The ramp is usually attached to the end of the handling chute so that animals move forward in a natural line.

Fencing and security for camel production units

Fencing is critical to protect camels from predators, theft, and uncontrolled wandering. Security measures ensure the safety of valuable camels and reduce losses that can undermine a production enterprise.

Key aspects of fencing and security:

• Materials and height: Strong wire mesh or electric fencing at least 1.8 meters high is recommended to deter predators such as lions and thieves.
• Perimeter security: Secure gates with locks and regular patrols reduce risks of camel theft, which is common in pastoral areas.
• Internal partitioning: Dividing the farm into paddocks or pens facilitates rotational grazing and easier management of different groups.
• Lighting: Solar-powered lights at entry points increase security during night hours.
• Community involvement: Engaging local communities in security initiatives helps monitor and prevent camel rustling.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of camel production, beginning with the design and purpose of camel production structures and the various methods used for identifying individual camels. It explores the selection of appropriate construction materials and the step-by-step process involved in building these structures to ensure the welfare of the animals. The chapter then discusses different camel breeds and the criteria for selecting breeds based on production goals and environmental suitability. Understanding heat and rutting signs is essential for effective camel breeding, which is covered alongside techniques for diagnosing pregnancy and managing parturition. The care and rearing of camel calves are detailed, followed by methods and techniques for milking. Routine management practices that maintain the health and productivity of camels are examined, as well as strategies for marketing camel products and by-products. Finally, the chapter emphasizes the importance of maintaining accurate production records and reviews the tools and equipment necessary for efficient camel production.