Chapter 1: Produce annual crops

Agripreneurs in Kenya engaged in annual crop production must prioritize efficient and safe practices throughout the crop cycle. This chapter focuses on critical preparatory steps that underpin successful crop yields, starting with the correct use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to safeguard health during field operations. It then addresses land preparation techniques, a foundational aspect that influences soil fertility, pest control, and crop establishment. Mastery of these components enhances productivity and sustainability in agribusiness ventures.

1.1 Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment, or PPE, is the clothing and gear a worker puts on to keep hazards off the body. Annual crop production exposes workers to several hazards at once: agrochemicals during spraying, sharp tools and moving machinery during land work, hot sun in open fields, dust at harvest and wet ground after rain. PPE does not remove these hazards. It is the last line of defence, worn in addition to safe methods, trained people and well-kept machines, and it only works when it fits, is in good condition and is worn for the whole task. An agripreneur who supplies correct PPE and insists on its use protects the health of the workers and also the continuity of the farm business, because an injured or poisoned worker cannot plant, spray or harvest on time.

1.1.1 Types

The five items below are the basic kit for an annual crop farm, for example a maize and bean farm, a wheat or sorghum field or a rice scheme. Each one protects a different part of the body, and some tasks need all five together.

Overall

An overall, also called a coverall, covers the body from the neck to the ankles. For general fieldwork such as weeding bean rows, a cotton or polyester-cotton overall is enough and protects against scratches from dry maize stalks and sorghum leaves. For mixing and spraying herbicides and insecticides, a chemical-resistant overall is used so that a splash does not soak through to the skin.

• Fit: the overall should allow bending and reaching but have no loose cuffs or flapping sleeves that could catch on a tractor's rotating shaft or other moving parts.
• Closure: zips and buttons are fastened to the neck and the cuffs closed whenever chemicals are handled.
• Condition: a hole or torn seam gives chemicals a path to the skin, so a damaged overall is mended or replaced before the next spraying day.
• Washing: a spraying overall is washed after every day of use, separately from household clothes, and hung to dry. A contaminated overall is never taken home to be washed with family laundry.
• Disposable types: a disposable overall is used once and thrown away. It is never washed for reuse.

Headgear

Headgear covers three different needs. A wide-brimmed hat or a cap with a neck flap shields workers from the sun during long hours of weeding or harvesting a wheat or sunflower field, and so reduces sunburn and heat stress. During spraying, a washable hat or hood stops droplets settling in the hair and on the scalp, and it is washed with the overall. When new land is being cleared and branches may fall, or when sacks are stacked high in a store, a safety helmet is worn because a hat gives no protection against a blow.

Gloves

Gloves protect the hands, which handle chemicals, seed, tools and produce all day. Chemical-resistant gloves of nitrile, neoprene or rubber are worn for mixing and spraying. They should be unlined, because a cotton lining soaks up chemical and holds it against the skin, and they should have a long cuff. Leather or heavy fabric gloves protect against blisters and cuts when handling hoes, pangas, stones and thorny brush, but leather is never used with chemicals because it absorbs them.

Before use, fill a reusable chemical glove with water and squeeze it gently to look for pinhole leaks. After spraying, wash the outside of the gloves with soap and water before taking them off, so that the chemical is not carried onto the wrists. Disposable gloves, for example those used when handling treated seed, are single-use and are thrown away after the task.

Gumboots

Gumboots are calf-high boots of rubber or PVC. They keep feet dry in a wet rice paddy or a field after rain, protect against thorns, sharp stubble and a slipped hoe, and reduce the risk of snake bites on the lower leg. A steel toe cap adds protection for heavy work such as handling machine parts or large tools.

When spraying, the trouser legs or overall legs are worn outside the boot tops so that liquid runs down the outside and does not enter the boot. Leather and canvas shoes are never used for spraying, because they absorb chemicals and cannot be fully cleaned. After use, wash the outside of the boots with clean water and store them upside down on a rack so that they drain and dry.

Goggles

Goggles seal around the eyes and protect them from chemical splashes, dust and flying particles. Splash-proof goggles with indirect vents are used for pouring and mixing concentrate and for spraying. Clear safety glasses with side shields are enough for dusty work such as threshing or bagging grain. A face shield may be worn over goggles when pouring a concentrated chemical, because it also protects the skin of the face.

Goggles are cleaned with clean water and a soft cloth, because rubbing dry dust over the lens scratches it. A scratched or cracked lens is replaced. A worker who wears prescription glasses uses goggles designed to fit over them.

Respiratory protection

Respiratory protection is worn together with the five items above when the air carries dust or chemical vapour. A disposable dust mask filters grain dust, soil dust and fertiliser dust, but it does not stop chemical vapour. For spraying, a respirator with the filter cartridges named on the chemical label is used. Any mask or respirator must seal against the face, so a worker with a beard or a loose strap cannot rely on it.

1.1.2 Uses

Each PPE item has a job, and the right set is chosen by looking at the task and its hazards before work starts. The table shows how the set changes through the season on an annual crop farm.

Protection from chemical exposure

Herbicides, insecticides and fungicides can enter the body through the skin, the eyes and the lungs, and some cause harm only after repeated small exposures. The overall, gloves, boots, goggles and respirator form a barrier on each route. Wearing them for mixing, spraying and cleaning the sprayer helps prevent the poisoning, rashes and eye injuries that a single careless day can cause.

Prevention of physical injuries

Hoes, pangas, slashers and machines cut, pinch and crush. Gloves prevent blisters and cuts, gumboots and safety boots protect toes and soles, and a helmet protects the head wherever objects may fall. A worker who is free of injury keeps working, so correct PPE also protects the planting and harvesting schedule.

Protection from sun, dust and wet conditions

Weeding and harvesting happen in open fields where the sun is strong and dust rises during dry weather. A hat reduces sunburn and heat stress, a dust mask reduces the dust that reaches the lungs, and gumboots keep feet dry, which lowers the risk of skin infections from long hours in wet fields.

Limits of PPE

PPE reduces harm but does not remove the hazard. A torn glove, a mask that does not seal or goggles that are not worn do not protect anyone. The correct order is to remove or reduce the hazard first, for example by choosing a less toxic product and calibrating the sprayer, then to use safe procedures, and then to rely on PPE for what remains. Workers need to be shown how to put on, fit, clean and take off each item, and the label on every pesticide states the protection it requires.

Duty to provide and use PPE

Kenya's Occupational Safety and Health Act, 2007 expects an employer to provide a safe workplace and expects workers to follow safety instructions and use the protective equipment provided. For an agripreneur this means supplying PPE that fits the workers, replacing it when it is worn, keeping it clean and stored away from chemicals, and making its use a normal part of every task. A farm where PPE is used every day builds a safety habit that lowers absence from work and gives workers confidence.

Chapter Summary

This chapter explored the essential aspects of producing annual crops, beginning with the importance of personal protective equipment and the various types used to ensure safety during farming activities. It then examined land preparation, detailing the equipment for clearing land and the tools required for tillage, followed by the practices involved in land clearing, primary, secondary, and tertiary cultivation. The chapter discussed planting materials, distinguishing between seeds and vegetative materials as sources for crop establishment. Various planting methods were covered to provide insight into effective crop establishment techniques. Routine crop management practices were outlined extensively, including irrigation, pest and disease control, weeding, staking, de-suckering, fertilizer application, trellising, mulching, gapping, and thinning, each contributing to healthy crop development. Finally, the chapter addressed crop harvesting methods such as picking, cutting, digging, and uprooting, highlighting the techniques suited for different types of crops. Together, these topics provide a comprehensive framework for successful annual crop production.