By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
Mastering this skill will help you make informed decisions in breeding and improve quality in your trade.
Compiled by: Esther Wachira
Selection is a fundamental process in agricultural genetics, enabling farmers and extension officers in Kenya to improve crop varieties and livestock breeds to meet production goals. By applying sound selection principles, agricultural professionals enhance traits such as yield, disease resistance, and adaptability to local environments. This chapter explores the theoretical basis of selection, practical selection methods, and breeding systems that underpin the development of superior livestock suited to Kenya’s diverse agro-ecological zones.
Selection principles guide the choice of superior genetic material to improve agricultural productivity. These principles are grounded in understanding heritability, genetic variation, and the impact of environmental factors on trait expression. Agricultural extension officers apply these principles when advising farmers on breed improvement and conservation of indigenous genetic resources.
The theory of selection explains how genetic improvement is achieved by choosing individuals with desirable traits to parent the next generation. It is based on the principle that traits with a genetic basis can be enhanced over time through systematic breeding.
Genetic variation refers to differences in DNA among individuals within a population. It is the raw material for selection since only traits that vary genetically can be improved. Example: in a dairy herd, genetic variation in milk yield allows the farmer to select the cows and bulls that transmit higher production.
Heritability measures the proportion of total variation in a trait due to genetic factors. It is written as:
h² = VG ÷ VP
where VG is the genetic variance and VP is the total phenotypic variance. High heritability means the trait is strongly influenced by genes and will respond well to selection. Traits such as body weight in goats often have moderate to high heritability, making them good targets for selection in pastoralist flocks. Traits such as fertility and survival have low heritability and respond slowly to selection.
Genetic gain is the improvement achieved in the average performance of a population due to selection. It depends on the selection intensity, genetic variation, and accuracy of selection. Gain per year is also affected by the generation interval, which is the average age of parents when their offspring are born. A dairy farm that selects bulls with superior breeding values for milk production achieves gain faster if those bulls are used at a young age.
Genetic gain per year = R ÷ L
where R is the response per generation and L is the generation interval in years.
Response to selection is the change in the trait mean from one generation to the next after selection. It is calculated as R = h² × S, where R is the response, h² is heritability and S is the selection differential. The selection differential is the difference between the mean of the selected parents and the mean of the whole population before selection. This formula guides extension officers when predicting the outcome of breeding programmes.
Worked example: a dairy herd averages 10 kg of milk per day. The cows kept as mothers of the next generation average 14 kg per day. The heritability of milk yield is 0.25.
S = mean of selected parents − population mean
S = 14 − 10
S = 4 kg per day
R = h² × S
R = 0.25 × 4
R = 1 kg per day
The expected mean of the next generation is 10 + 1 = 11 kg per day.
Environmental factors such as nutrition, disease challenge and climate affect the expression of genetic traits. Selection must consider genotype-environment interactions to ensure that selected animals perform well under local conditions. A breed adapted to hot, arid rangelands may not thrive in humid, high-rainfall conditions with heavy tick burdens, and the reverse is also true.
Selection methods are strategies used to identify and choose superior individuals for breeding. They vary depending on objectives, resources, and the traits of interest, and are critical in livestock improvement programmes. The choice depends mainly on how many traits are being improved, what records exist and how heritable the trait is.
Tandem selection improves one trait at a time. The breeder selects for the first trait until the herd reaches the desired level, then changes to the second trait, and so on. Example: a dairy goat keeper first selects does for milk yield until the flock average reaches the target, then selects for a shorter kidding interval while holding milk yield steady.
The method is simple and needs few records, but it is slow when several traits matter. Progress in the second trait may also reduce the gain already made in the first if the two traits are negatively correlated. For this reason it is often replaced by independent culling levels, where an animal must pass a minimum standard for every trait, or by a selection index that combines all traits into one score.
Family selection uses the average performance of a family group, such as full sibs or half sibs, to select superior families rather than individuals. The whole family is kept or rejected according to its average. This method is effective when individual records are limited or the trait cannot be measured on the candidate itself, such as carcass quality or the egg production of a cockerel. It also suits traits of low heritability, because the family average cancels out many chance environmental effects.
Example: a rural farmer improving indigenous chickens compares the average egg numbers of several hen families and keeps cockerels from the best families.
Family selection can be done in two ways:
Pedigree selection chooses animals on the recorded performance and merit of their ancestors. It is most useful for young animals, for traits expressed in one sex only, and for traits measured late in life. A bull calf has no daughters yet, but its dam's lactation records and its sire's daughter records predict its likely merit.
Each parent contributes on average 50% of an animal's genes, each grandparent 25% and each great-grandparent 12.5%, so close ancestors carry the most weight. The method depends on accurate identification and recording, and it cannot show which of two full sibs received the better half of the parents' genes.
Example: a farmer choosing between two heifer calves compares the milk records of their dams and the daughter records of their sires before deciding which to rear as replacements.
Contemporary selection compares an animal with its contemporaries, which are animals of the same breed, sex and age, born in the same season and managed together on the same feed. Because the group shares the same environment, differences in performance are more likely to be genetic. The animal's record is expressed as a deviation from the contemporary group mean.
Adjusted performance = animal's record − contemporary group mean
Worked example: kids born in the same season and reared together have a mean weaning weight of 18 kg. Kid A weighs 21 kg and kid B weighs 16 kg.
Kid A = 21 − 18 = +3 kg
Kid B = 16 − 18 = −2 kg
Kid A is the better candidate for breeding. The method fails if the groups are too small or if animals within the group were treated differently.
Mass selection involves choosing individuals based on their own phenotypic performance without considering their pedigree. It is simple and cheap, for example when a farmer keeps the heaviest and healthiest bull calves of the year as future sires. However, it may be less accurate for traits with low heritability.
Progeny testing evaluates an animal's genetic quality based on the performance of its offspring. It is used in dairy cattle breeding, where bulls are tested through their daughters' milk yields. It is accurate but slow, since the bull must wait until his daughters have completed lactations, which lengthens the generation interval.
Combined selection integrates individual performance, family data, and progeny information to improve accuracy. This method is used in government breeding stations where comprehensive records are maintained.
Genomic selection uses DNA markers to predict breeding values, accelerating genetic gain. It allows animals to be evaluated at birth, but it needs laboratory facilities and a reference population with good records. It holds promise for improving traits such as disease resistance in indigenous goat populations.
Livestock breeding systems describe the mating plans through which genetic improvement is achieved. They fall into two broad groups: inbreeding systems, which mate related animals (close breeding and line breeding), and outbreeding systems, which mate animals less related than the average of the population (cross breeding, top crossing, up-grading and special hybridisation). The right system depends on the production environment, the breeds available and the farmer's capacity to keep records.
Close breeding is the mating of closely related animals, such as sire to daughter, son to dam, or full brother to sister. It increases homozygosity, which makes the offspring more uniform and fixes desirable genes quickly. It also brings hidden recessive defects into the open so that carriers can be culled.
The danger is inbreeding depression, seen as lower fertility, slower growth, weaker calves, kids or chicks and higher mortality. Example: a farmer with a very small flock of indigenous chickens who keeps mating brothers to sisters will notice falling hatchability and weak chicks within a few generations. Close breeding is therefore used only for short periods and by skilled breeders, such as when developing an inbred line.
Line breeding is a mild form of inbreeding that keeps the offspring related to one outstanding ancestor while avoiding very close matings. The aim is to concentrate the genes of that ancestor in the herd. Example: a dairy farmer who owns an exceptional proven sire mates later bulls and cows from his descendants so that his share of genes stays high in the herd.
Compared with close breeding the rate of inbreeding is slower, so the risk of inbreeding depression is smaller. It still demands accurate pedigrees and strict culling of any animal that shows defects. The method works only when the foundation animal is truly superior.
Cross breeding is the mating of animals of different breeds. It combines the strengths of both breeds and gives hybrid vigour, called heterosis, which is the superiority of the crossbred offspring over the average of the parent breeds. Heterosis is greatest for traits of low heritability such as fertility, survival and growth of the young. Example: farmers cross indigenous goats with Boer bucks to increase growth rate and meat production while keeping some of the local adaptation to heat and disease.
Common plans include:
Heterosis is lost partly when crossbreds are mated among themselves, so good records and a clear plan are needed.
Top crossing is the mating of a superior purebred sire, or a sire from a selected line, to females of the ordinary herd that are of mixed or unknown breeding. The sire is chosen for outstanding performance, so he lifts the average of the offspring in one generation. Example: a farmer with a herd of local dairy cows uses a proven bull, or semen from one, on all of them to raise the milk yield of the next generation.
The method is quick and cheap because only the sire needs to be of high quality. Its limits are that the sire contributes only half of the offspring's genes and that the gains are not fixed unless superior sires continue to be used. It differs from up-grading, in which females are repeatedly bred back to the same improved breed.
Up-grading is the gradual replacement of the genes of a local breed with those of an improved breed by repeated mating of the female offspring to purebred sires of that improved breed. Each generation raises the proportion of improved breed genes. Example: local dairy goats are mated to purebred dairy bucks, and the daughters are again mated to purebred bucks of the same breed.
| Generation | Mating | Share of improved breed genes |
|---|---|---|
| Foundation | Local female × improved sire | 50% |
| Second | Grade female × improved sire | 75% |
| Third | Grade female × improved sire | 87.5% |
| Fourth | Grade female × improved sire | 93.75% |
| Fifth | Grade female × improved sire | 96.9% |
After about five generations the grades are close to the purebred in type and performance and are often registered as such. The improved breed must be suited to the environment, and feeding and disease control must be good enough to support the higher genetic merit.
Special hybridisation produces hybrids for a particular purpose by crossing different species or highly specialised lines. In species crossing, the best-known example is the mule, produced from a male donkey and a female horse, which combines the strength of the horse with the hardiness of the donkey but is normally sterile. Because hybrids of different species are mostly sterile, the cross must be repeated each time.
The second form is crossing specialised inbred or selected lines, as in commercial hybrid poultry. Parent lines are bred and maintained for specific traits, such as egg number or growth rate, and are crossed to give hybrid layers or broilers that show strong heterosis. Farmers buy the day-old chicks from hatcheries each cycle, since breeding from the hybrids themselves breaks up the gene combinations.
Pure breeding involves mating animals within the same breed to maintain genetic purity. It is used by dairy farmers who keep Friesian cattle to preserve breed characteristics such as high milk yield, and it supplies the purebred sires needed for up-grading and top crossing.
Synthetic breeding involves creating a new breed by mixing several breeds and then mating the crossbreds among themselves, with selection, until the type is stable. It combines desirable traits of the parent breeds, and is used in some government breeding programmes aiming to develop animals adapted to specific environments.
CBBPs empower farmers to participate in selection and breeding decisions, enhancing sustainability. Farmers define their breeding goals, record performance, share good sires and agree on mating rules. These programmes have been used to improve small ruminant breeds where the animals are kept under low-input conditions.
Breeding methods are techniques applied to mate animals to achieve genetic improvement. The choice of method affects genetic progress, costs and management requirements in livestock enterprises. Natural mating needs the least skill and equipment, while artificial insemination and embryo transplant allow the best animals to produce far more offspring.
Natural mating involves direct mating of male and female animals. It is common on smallholder farms because it is low cost and simple, and the male detects females in heat without help from the farmer. The farmer loses control over genetic pairing, however, and the risk of spreading venereal disease is higher.
Natural mating can be managed in these ways:
Embryo transplant, also called embryo transfer, involves collecting fertilised embryos from a superior female, the donor, and implanting them into recipient females that carry the pregnancy to term. A donor normally produces one calf a year, but with this technique she can supply several embryos in a single cycle. It accelerates genetic gain on the female side but requires advanced technical skills, and is mostly used in research stations and by specialist breeders.
Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) combines hormone treatment to induce multiple ovulations in the donor with embryo transfer to increase offspring from elite females. It enhances genetic progress in high-value breeds but is costly and requires skilled personnel.
The main steps are:
Artificial insemination (AI) uses semen collected from superior males to inseminate females without physical mating. One bull can produce semen for thousands of doses, so a single outstanding sire can serve many herds. It spreads elite genetics efficiently and, when done hygienically, reduces the spread of venereal diseases. It also removes the need to keep a bull on small farms.
| Item | Specification | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Liquid nitrogen container | Insulated flask holding liquid nitrogen at −196 °C | Stores frozen semen straws |
| Semen straw | Plastic straw of 0.25 ml or 0.5 ml containing diluted semen | Holds one dose of semen |
| AI gun | Stainless steel, with a sheath that fits the straw | Deposits semen in the cow |
| Thawing flask | Water at 35 to 37 °C with a thermometer | Thaws the straw before use |
| Straw cutter | Sharp scissors or cutter | Cuts the sealed end of the straw |
| Disposable sheath and long gloves | Single use | Protect the cow and the inseminator from contamination |
The usual procedure for a cow is:
AI requires trained inseminators, accurate heat detection and a supply of frozen semen. Poor heat detection and poor semen handling are the commonest causes of failure.
Cloning replicates genetically identical animals. It is currently experimental and rarely applied in practical livestock improvement because of ethical and technical constraints and high cost.
Breeding superior livestock is the ultimate goal of applying selection principles and breeding methods. It involves identifying animals with desirable traits and ensuring their genetic contribution to future generations. A farmer or extension officer starts with a clear breeding objective, collects records, chooses parents, then mates them using a suitable system and method.
A breeding objective states which traits will be improved and in what order of importance. It must fit the market and the production system. Example: a smallholder dairy farmer may choose higher milk yield, a shorter calving interval and tolerance to tick-borne diseases, and ignore traits that bring no income.
Trait identification focuses on characteristics such as growth rate, fertility, disease resistance, and product quality. Farmers selecting beef cattle prioritise fast growth and good carcass conformation for market demands.
Accurate record-keeping of animal performance enables objective selection decisions. Extension officers support farmers in maintaining birth weights, growth rates, and reproductive records to track superior animals.
Selection of breeding stock considers genetic merit, health status, and adaptability. For instance, dairy farmers select bulls whose daughters have proven high milk yield, and who have good temperament.
Genetic evaluation uses statistical tools to estimate breeding values, predicting an animal's genetic contribution. This approach is increasingly adopted in government breeding programmes to guide mating decisions.
Sustainability in breeding ensures genetic diversity and adaptation to local environments. Pastoral farmers balance improvement with conservation of indigenous breeds to maintain resilience against drought and disease.
This chapter explored the fundamental principles of selection in genetics, beginning with the theory of selection that explains how desirable traits are identified and passed on to future generations. Various selection methods were examined, including tandem, family, pedigree, and contemporary approaches, each offering unique strategies for improving livestock traits. The chapter then detailed livestock breeding systems such as close breeding, line breeding, cross breeding, top crossing, and special hybridization, highlighting their roles in enhancing genetic quality and diversity. Breeding methods were also discussed, covering natural mating, embryo transplant, and artificial insemination as practical techniques for propagating superior animals. Finally, the chapter emphasized the importance of breeding superior livestock to achieve enhanced productivity and sustainability in animal husbandry. These concepts collectively provide a comprehensive framework for applying genetic selection principles effectively in livestock improvement.
Question 1 key points:
Question 2 key points:
At the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) farm in Naivasha, a project aims to enhance dairy cattle productivity through improved breeding strategies.
Tasks:
a) Identify which selection method(s) would be most appropriate for this project and justify your choice. (6 marks)
b) Recommend a suitable breeding system for the farm considering the local environment and production goals. (6 marks)
c) Propose breeding methods to implement and explain how these methods will help in producing superior livestock. (8 marks)
a) Contemporary selection is appropriate because it controls for environmental variation, ensuring accurate identification of superior animals. Pedigree selection can complement this by using ancestral data to predict genetic merit early. Justification includes the availability of performance records and the need for precise genetic improvement.
b) Line breeding is suitable as it maintains genetic merit while minimizing inbreeding risks, which is important given the moderate herd size and the goal to improve specific traits like milk yield and disease resistance in the local climate.
c) Artificial insemination should be implemented to access superior genetics without the need to maintain many bulls, reducing costs and disease risks. Embryo transplant can accelerate multiplication of elite females. Natural mating may be used selectively for traits requiring natural behavior expression. These methods combined enhance genetic gain and herd productivity.
Question 11 (Compulsory - 20 marks)
At the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), a program aims to improve the genetic quality of indigenous chicken through selection and breeding.
a) Describe how pedigree and contemporary selection methods can be combined to identify superior breeding stock in this program. (10 marks)
b) Recommend suitable breeding methods for multiplying the superior stock identified, explaining their applicability in the Kenyan smallholder context. (10 marks)
Question 12 (20 marks)
Evaluate the benefits and challenges of implementing crossbreeding and line breeding systems in beef cattle production among pastoral communities in Northern Kenya.
Question 13 (20 marks)
Discuss the steps involved in artificial insemination and embryo transplant technologies, highlighting their roles in enhancing livestock productivity in Kenyan dairy farms.
Question 14 (20 marks)
Explain the theory of selection and how the tandem and family selection methods can be applied in crop breeding to develop maize varieties resistant to maize lethal necrosis disease in Kenya.
Question 11
a) Pedigree selection at KALRO involves recording family lineage to identify chickens with superior traits such as growth rate and disease resistance. Contemporary selection complements this by comparing birds raised under similar environmental conditions to reduce bias. Together, they ensure selection of genetically superior and environmentally adapted stock.
b) Natural mating suits smallholder farmers due to simplicity and low cost, while artificial insemination can be used for rapid dissemination of superior genetics. Embryo transplant, though costlier, allows rapid multiplication of elite hens but requires technical capacity and infrastructure. A mixed approach balances practicality and genetic gain.
Question 12
Crossbreeding introduces hybrid vigor improving growth and fertility but may dilute indigenous traits like drought tolerance. Challenges include managing breed composition and farmer knowledge gaps. Line breeding conserves desirable traits within a breed and reduces inbreeding risks but requires careful record-keeping and selection. Both systems must consider pastoralist mobility and resource constraints.
Question 13
Artificial insemination involves collecting semen from superior males, processing, and inseminating selected females at optimal estrus. Embryo transplant includes superovulation of donor females, embryo collection, and implantation into surrogates. Both technologies accelerate genetic improvement but need skilled personnel, infrastructure, and farmer awareness to succeed in Kenyan dairy farms.
Question 14
The theory of selection focuses on choosing parents with favorable traits to improve future generations. Tandem selection improves one trait at a time, for example, first selecting for disease resistance, then yield. Family selection evaluates entire families for multiple traits simultaneously, speeding up breeding for maize lethal necrosis resistance. Combining these methods enhances efficiency and genetic gain in Kenyan maize breeding programs.
Time: 2 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a TVET agricultural training centre in Kitale, students are tasked with applying the theory of selection to local crop varieties to improve yields under semi-arid conditions.
Tasks:
i. Identify desirable traits in the seed samples using the selection criteria checklist
ii. Explain how selection pressure can affect allele frequency in the crop population
iii. Record observations on the potential of each seed variety for drought tolerance
iv. Recommend which variety would be best suited for planting in Kitui County based on selection theory
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Group of 3
Resources Required:
Students at Egerton University agricultural training farm practice tandem selection by focusing on plant height first, then grain yield, to improve maize crop performance.
Tasks:
i. Measure and record plant height for all maize plants in the plot
ii. Select the top 20% tallest plants and tag them for further observation
iii. After maturation, measure and record grain yield of tagged plants
iv. Select the best performing plants based on both traits sequentially and justify the selection
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 4 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a cooperative dairy farm in Meru, trainees apply family selection principles to choose cows with superior milk production for breeding.
Tasks:
i. Review pedigree and milk yield records of at least five cow families
ii. Calculate average milk yield per family
iii. Identify families with superior performance traits
iv. Recommend cows from the best families for breeding based on the data
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Pairs
Resources Required:
In Kisumu County livestock extension office, students practice pedigree selection to improve the genetic quality of goats by tracing ancestry and performance.
Tasks:
i. Analyze the pedigree charts to identify superior breeding stock
ii. Compare health and growth records within family lines
iii. Select three goats with the best pedigree and performance for breeding
iv. Present findings and selection rationale to the class
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 2 Hours | Type: Group of 4
Resources Required:
Students at a Nairobi peri-urban poultry farm practice contemporary selection by evaluating birds of the same age group for desired traits.
Tasks:
i. Weigh all chickens aged 6 months and record their weights
ii. Collect egg production data for the same flock over one month
iii. Identify the top 25% performers based on weight and egg production
iv. Prepare a report recommending birds for breeding using contemporary selection criteria
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a Laikipia County ranch, learners manage close breeding by selecting related ewes and rams to maintain desirable traits while minimizing inbreeding depression.
Tasks:
i. Identify related animals suitable for close breeding from records
ii. Plan a mating schedule avoiding mating of immediate siblings
iii. Tag selected breeding sheep for identification
iv. Monitor and record any health issues during the breeding season
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 4 Hours | Type: Group of 3
Resources Required:
At a dairy farm in Nakuru, students design a line breeding program aimed at enhancing milk yield while controlling inbreeding.
Tasks:
i. Analyze pedigree data to identify a common ancestor in the herd
ii. Calculate inbreeding coefficients for proposed matings
iii. Draft a line breeding plan focusing on descendants of the selected ancestor
iv. Present the program with expected benefits and risks
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a Kajiado ranch, trainees practice cross breeding by mating indigenous cows with exotic bulls to improve meat quality and growth rates.
Tasks:
i. Select suitable indigenous cows and exotic bulls for cross breeding
ii. Tag animals and record mating dates
iii. Monitor and record calving outcomes and calf growth rates
iv. Evaluate the benefits of cross breeding based on observed data
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 2 Hours | Type: Pairs
Resources Required:
In Kisii County, students plan and implement top crossing by mating local does with exotic bucks to improve productivity.
Tasks:
i. Identify local does and exotic bucks with desirable traits
ii. Develop a mating schedule for top crossing
iii. Tag and record the breeding pairs
iv. Predict expected improvements in offspring performance
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Group of 4
Resources Required:
Students at a TVET college farm in Embu conduct special hybridization by controlled cross-pollination of two maize varieties.
Tasks:
i. Select healthy parent plants for hybridization
ii. Emasculate flowers of the female parent to prevent self-pollination
iii. Collect pollen from male parent and manually pollinate female flowers
iv. Label and record the crosses for future evaluation
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 2 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a Murang’a County smallholder farm, trainees supervise and assist in natural mating of dairy cattle to improve herd genetics.
Tasks:
i. Assess the health and readiness of cows and bull for mating
ii. Facilitate the natural mating process ensuring safety of animals and handlers
iii. Record mating dates and animal identification
iv. Monitor cows for signs of pregnancy post-mating
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 4 Hours | Type: Group of 3
Resources Required:
At a veterinary training centre in Thika, students perform embryo transplant procedures to multiply superior cattle genetics.
Tasks:
i. Prepare donor and recipient cows for embryo transfer
ii. Collect embryos from the donor cow using flushing technique
iii. Transfer embryos into recipient cows under sterile conditions
iv. Monitor recipient cows for pregnancy success over the following weeks
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Individual
Resources Required:
At a dairy farm in Kiambu County, trainees perform artificial insemination to introduce superior genetics into the herd.
Tasks:
i. Prepare the AI equipment and thaw semen correctly
ii. Restrain the cow safely for insemination
iii. Perform insemination using correct technique
iv. Record insemination details and monitor the cow for heat return
Assessor Observation Criteria:
Time: 3 Hours | Type: Group of 4
Resources Required:
At a county government livestock farm in Nakuru, students apply selection principles to identify superior animals for breeding programs.
Tasks:
i. Measure and record body weight and physical traits of livestock
ii. Assess health status and reproductive history
iii. Use selection criteria to rank animals for breeding potential
iv. Prepare a report recommending animals for the breeding program
Assessor Observation Criteria:
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