Chapter 1: Prepare planting materials

Preparing planting materials is a fundamental step in perennial crop production that directly influences the success of the crop establishment and yield outcomes. In Kenya, where agriculture is a backbone of the economy and a key source of livelihood, careful preparation of planting materials ensures high-quality, disease-free, and vigorous seedlings or propagules. This chapter provides agriculture and extension professionals with detailed guidance on understanding relevant terminology, assembling the necessary tools and equipment for land preparation, and maintaining these implements to ensure durability and effectiveness in the field.

1.1 Prepare planting materials

Preparing planting materials means choosing, sorting, treating and readying the seeds, seedlings and vegetative parts that will start a perennial crop, and assembling the tools needed to prepare the ground that will receive them. A perennial crop stays in the same field for many years, so a weak start cannot be corrected later: a poor seedling or a badly dug planting hole stays with the farm for the life of the crop. Extension officers therefore guide farmers on where to get sound planting material, how to handle it, and which tools to have ready before planting day.

1.1.1 Definition of terms

Clear terms let a farmer, an agrovet dealer and an extension officer talk about the same thing. The terms below are used throughout the unit.

• Perennial crop: A crop that lives for more than two years and gives harvests over many seasons without being replanted, for example coffee, tea, avocado, macadamia, mango and banana.
• Planting material: Any living part of a plant used to start a new plant, whether a seed, a seedling or a vegetative part such as a cutting or a sucker.
• Propagation: The multiplication of plants. Sexual propagation uses seed, while vegetative (asexual) propagation uses parts of the parent plant, so the new plant is a clone of the parent.
• Certified planting material: Planting material produced and inspected under an official scheme, so that its variety, purity and health are guaranteed. A farmer buying certified avocado seedlings, for example, receives plants that are true to the named variety.
• Seedling: A young plant that has grown from a seed and is strong enough to be transplanted. Coffee and avocado seedlings are raised in a nursery and watched closely before they go to the field.
• Propagule: Any plant part that can grow into a new plant. It may be sexual, such as a seed, or asexual, such as a stem cutting of passion fruit.
• Germination: The process by which a seed begins to grow into a seedling when it has enough moisture, warmth and air.
• Nursery: A protected place where seedlings or young plants are raised until they are strong enough to be moved to the field. A coffee nursery, for example, supplies grafted seedlings that resist disease better.
• Land preparation: The work done before planting to clear the site, loosen the soil and mark out and open the planting holes or rows.
• Tool, equipment and machinery: A tool is a simple hand-held item such as a hoe or a panga. Equipment is a larger or more specialised item, often animal-drawn or tractor-drawn, and machinery is a powered machine such as a tractor.
• Implement: An attachment pulled or driven by a tractor or by animals, such as a plough, a harrow or a ridger.

The kinds of planting material (seeds and seedlings, splits, crowns, slips, cuttings and suckers) are explained under Obtain planting materials. Two further ideas belong here because they decide whether any material is worth planting.

Characteristics of quality planting materials

• Viability: The material must be alive and able to germinate or grow. Old, dried or heat-damaged seed fails to emerge and wastes the farmer's time and money.
• Purity: The material must be free from admixtures and contaminants, such as seed of other species, weed seed or diseased parts.
• Health: The material must be free from pests and diseases, because an infected seedling carries the problem into the new field and may cause early crop failure.
• Uniformity: Plants of similar size and maturity establish together and are easier to manage and harvest as a block.
• Adaptability: The variety must suit the local climate and soil. A coffee variety chosen for a cool highland farm may perform poorly in a warm, dry area.

Importance of proper preparation of planting materials

• It ensures uniform growth and development across the whole field.
• It reduces the spread of pests and diseases from the nursery to the farm.
• It raises yield and quality, because the plants start without a setback.
• It makes efficient use of fertiliser, water and labour, since fewer plants die and need replacing.
• It supports sustainable farming by reducing replanting, which saves cost and protects the soil from repeated disturbance.

1.1.2 Assemble land preparation tools and equipment

Land preparation tools and equipment create a suitable planting site for perennial crops. Assembling them means selecting the right items for the job, checking that each one is safe and ready, and bringing them together at the site before work begins. A farmer opening planting holes for an avocado orchard needs a different set from one levelling a seedbed for pineapple, so the set is chosen from the crop, the soil and the size of the farm.

Selection criteria for tools

• Durability: Tools must withstand frequent use in the varied soils of the farm.
• Suitability: Tools should match the scale of the farm and the soil type: heavy tools for compact soils and lighter tools for sandy soils.
• Safety: Handles must be smooth and free from splinters, and heads must be firmly fixed.
• Ease of use: A well-balanced tool of the right length reduces operator fatigue and back strain.
• Availability: Tools that can be bought or repaired locally reduce cost and downtime.

Preparing tools before use

1. Inspect each tool for rust, cracks and loose handles.
2. Tighten or replace any handle that moves in the head.
3. Sharpen the blades of hoes, pangas, spades and axes with a file.
4. Clean off soil and plant residue left from the last job, which may carry pests and disease.
5. Oil the metal parts lightly to prevent rust.
6. Lay the tools out at the planting site in the order they will be used.

Questions to guide tool selection

• What is the soil type and condition in the planting area?
• What is the size and slope of the land to be prepared?
• Does the crop have special requirements, such as deep holes for tree crops or raised ridges for pineapple?
• What is the availability and cost of tools in the locality?
• What is the skill level of the workers who will use them?

1.1.2.1 Axes

An axe is a heavy cutting tool with a steel head and a long wooden handle. In land preparation it is used to fell trees and cut large stumps and roots that block a planting site, for example when an old woodlot is converted to a macadamia orchard. A felling axe has a thin, sharp blade for cutting across the grain, while a splitting axe has a heavier, wedge-shaped head for splitting logs into firewood or stakes. Before use, check that the head is firmly wedged on the handle, the edge is sharp and the handle has no cracks, and always wear boots and gloves and keep bystanders clear of the swing.

1.1.2.2 Panga

A panga is a broad, single-edged steel blade with a short handle, widely used on Kenyan farms for cutting. It clears bush and light undergrowth, trims branches and cuts stakes for marking out planting rows. The blade should be sharpened regularly with a file and kept in a sheath or wrapped when not in use. On a smallholder coffee plot, a worker may use a panga to clear the shrubs along the boundary before the holes are pegged.

1.1.2.3 Rake

A rake has a row of metal or wooden teeth fixed to a head on a long handle. After the ground is dug and the clods are broken, the rake levels the surface and gathers stones, roots and dry plant residue so that the site is clean. A metal-toothed rake is stronger for stony soil, while a wooden rake is lighter and suits fine seedbeds and nursery beds. Bent or missing teeth should be repaired or replaced before use.

1.1.2.4 Slasher

A slasher is a long-handled tool with a curved blade used to cut grass, weeds and light bush in a swinging motion. It is faster than a panga for clearing large areas of tall grass, for example before the lines for a new banana grove are pegged. The cutting edge needs frequent sharpening, and the worker should stand with a clear arc around them and wear gumboots and long trousers.

1.1.2.5 Tillage tools/equipment/machinery

Tillage tools, equipment and machinery are the items used to loosen, turn and break up the soil. They are grouped by the power that drives them: hand tools such as the hoe, fork jembe and spade; animal-drawn implements such as the ox plough; and tractor-drawn or tractor-driven implements such as the mouldboard plough, disc plough, harrows and rotavator. The choice depends on farm size, soil, crop and the capital the farmer has. A smallholder opening a small plot for tea may use hand tools only, while a large estate preparing hundreds of hectares uses tractors and implements.

1.1.2.6 Fork jembe

A fork jembe is a strong digging fork with a few thick steel tines and a wooden handle. The tines penetrate hard or compacted soil more easily than a flat blade, so the tool loosens the ground, breaks clods and lifts stones and roots. It is also used to mix manure or compost into the soil at the bottom and sides of a planting hole. The handle should be checked for cracks, and bent tines straightened before use.

1.1.2.7 Harrows

A harrow is an implement drawn over ploughed land to break clods, level the surface and prepare a fine seedbed. Common types are the disc harrow, the spike-tooth harrow and the spring-tine harrow. Harrows are secondary tillage tools, used after ploughing, and are particularly useful when preparing a fine, level bed for planting seedlings or for sowing cover crops between young trees.

1.1.2.8 Hoe

The hoe, or jembe, is a widely used hand tool on Kenyan farms. It has a broad steel blade fixed to a wooden handle and is used to break clods, dig shallow holes, form small ridges and weed. The blade should be sharp and tightly fixed, and the handle should suit the height of the user. A smallholder preparing a pineapple plot may use a hoe to form beds and rake them level.

1.1.2.9 Tractor

A tractor is a self-propelled machine that pulls or drives implements. It is the main power source for large-scale land preparation, because it ploughs, harrows, ridges and mows many times faster than hand labour. Its power take-off (PTO) shaft drives implements such as the rotavator and the mower, and its hydraulic system lifts and lowers mounted implements. Before use, the operator checks the engine oil, coolant, fuel, tyre condition and pressure, brakes, hydraulics and all guards, and only a trained, competent operator may drive it.

1.1.2.10 Equipment

Besides cutting and digging tools, land preparation needs equipment for marking out and for safety. A measuring tape, ranging poles, pegs and a strong line are used to mark rows and planting-hole positions at the spacing recommended for the crop, such as the spacing chosen for an avocado orchard. Where a farm uses herbicide to clear weeds, a knapsack sprayer is also assembled and checked for leaks. Workers wear protective equipment: gumboots, gloves, a hat and overalls, and eye protection when chopping or using powered machines.

1.1.2.11 Mower

A mower is a machine that cuts grass and weeds at a uniform height. Tractor-mounted rotary mowers and flail mowers are driven from the power take-off, while small farms may use a walk-behind or hand-held brush cutter. In land preparation a mower clears tall grass quickly from a large area before ploughing, and the cut material can be left as mulch or collected for composting. Blades must be sharp and all guards in place, since a mower can throw stones and cause serious injury.

1.1.2.12 Rotavator

A rotavator, or rotary tiller, is a tractor-driven implement with a shaft of curved blades that rotate and chop the soil. It loosens the soil and breaks it into fine tilth in a single pass, which makes it useful for seedbeds and nursery sites. It works poorly in very stony land or soil with many large roots, because these can damage the blades. Before use, check the blades for wear and tightness and make sure the safety shield is in place.

1.1.2.13 Wheelbarrow

A wheelbarrow is a one-wheeled cart with two handles and a steel tray. It carries soil, manure, compost, stones and seedlings from the stores to the planting site. A tyre at the right pressure, a greased wheel hub and a tray without holes make loads easier to move. Loading is kept within the strength of the worker so that the barrow does not tip on slopes.

1.1.2.14 Ridgers

A ridger is an implement, drawn by oxen or a tractor, with two mouldboards that throw soil sideways to form ridges and furrows. Ridges improve drainage on heavy soils, give roots a deeper loose layer and make planting and later weeding easier. A farmer establishing pineapple on a heavy soil may use ridges to prevent waterlogging. The working width of the ridger is set to match the spacing required by the crop.

1.1.2.15 Mouldboard plough

A mouldboard plough cuts a slice of soil with its share, lifts it and turns it over with a curved mouldboard, burying weeds and crop residue. The landside presses against the furrow wall and keeps the plough running straight. It is a primary tillage implement, drawn by a tractor or by oxen, and works best in soils free from many stones and stumps. Share and mouldboard must be sharp and free of rust, and the depth and width of the furrow are adjusted before work starts.

1.1.2.16 Disc plough

A disc plough has large concave steel discs that rotate as the plough moves forward, cutting and turning the soil. Because the discs roll over obstacles instead of catching, it works well in hard, dry, sticky or stony soil and in land with many roots or crop residue. It is heavier than a mouldboard plough and suits large farms and tractor use. The discs must be checked for wear and cracks, the bearings greased and the scrapers adjusted.

1.1.2.17 Disc harrow

A disc harrow has gangs of concave steel discs set at an angle on a frame, pulled behind a tractor. As it moves, the discs cut and break clods left by ploughing, mix in crop residue and level the soil into a fine seedbed. It is a secondary tillage implement and, unlike a mouldboard plough, it does not turn the soil over but chops and mixes it. The gangs are set to the working angle for the soil, and the discs and bearings are checked before work.

Chapter Summary

This chapter covers the preparation of planting materials essential for perennial crop production, beginning with the definition of key terms to establish a clear understanding. It then details the assembly of various land preparation tools and equipment, such as axes, pangas, hoes, and machinery including tractors and rotavators, explaining their specific roles in readying the land. The proper maintenance of these tools and equipment is emphasized to ensure their longevity and efficiency. The chapter also explores the different types of planting materials available, including seeds, seedlings, cuttings, and suckers, highlighting their importance in crop establishment.